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HP C
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The void type is an incomplete type that cannot be completed.
The void type has three important uses:
The following example shows how void is used to define a function, with no parameters, that does not return a value:
void message(void)
{
printf ("Stop making sense!");
}
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The next example shows a function prototype for a function that accepts a pointer to any object as its first and second argument:
void memcopy (void *dest, void *source, int length); |
A pointer to the void type has the same representation and alignment requirements as a pointer to a character type. The void * type is a derived type based on void.
The void type can also be used in a cast expression to explicitly discard or ignore a value. For example:
int tree(void);
void main()
{
int i;
for (; ; (void)tree()){...} /* void cast is valid */
for (; (void)tree(); ;){...} /* void cast is NOT valid, because the */
/* value of the second expression in a */
/* for statement is used */
for ((void)tree(); ;) {...} /* void cast is valid */
}
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A void expression has no value, and cannot be used in any context where a value is required.
An enumerated type is used to specify the possible values of an object from a predefined list. Elements of the list are called enumeration constants. The main use of enumerated types is to explicitly show the symbolic names, and therefore the intended purpose, of objects whose values can be represented with integer values.
Objects of enumerated type are interpreted as objects of type signed int, and are compatible with objects of other integral types.
In RELAXED mode, the compiler allows enumeration constants to have type other than signed int. |
The compiler automatically assigns integer values to each of the enumeration constants, beginning with 0. The following example declares an enumerated object background_color with a list of enumeration constants:
enum colors { black, red, blue, green, white } background_color;
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Later in the program, a value can be assigned to the object background_color:
background_color = white; |
In this example, the compiler automatically assigns the integer values as follows: black = 0, red = 1, blue = 2, green = 3, and white = 4. Alternatively, explicit values can be assigned during the enumerated type definition:
enum colors { black = 5, red = 10, blue, green = 7, white = green+2 };
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Here, black equals the integer value 5, red = 10, blue = 11, green = 7, and white = 9. Note that blue equals the value of the previous constant (red) plus one, and green is allowed to be out of sequential order.
Because the ANSI C standard is not strict about assignment to enumerated types, any assigned value not in the predefined list is accepted without complaint.
There are four type qualifiers:
Type qualifiers were introduced by the ANSI C standard to, in part, give you greater control over the compiler's optimizations. The const and volatile type qualifiers can be applied to any type. The __restrict type qualifier can be applied only to pointer types.
Note that because the __restrict type qualifier is not part of the 1989 ANSI C standard, this keyword has double leading underscores. The next version (9X) of the C standard is expected to adopt the keyword restrict with the same semantics described in this section.
The use of const gives you a method of controlling write access to an object, and eliminates potential side effects across function calls involving that object. This is because a side effect is an alteration of an object's storage and const prohibits such alteration.
Use volatile to qualify an object that can be changed by other processes or hardware. The use of volatile disables optimizations with respect to referencing the object. If an object is volatile qualified, it may be changed between the time it is initialized and any subsequent assignments. Therefore, it cannot be optimized.
Function parameters, however, do not all share the type qualification of one parameter. For example:
int f( const int a, int b) /* a is const qualified; b is not */ |
When using a type qualifier with an array identifier, the elements of the array are qualified, not the array type itself.
The following declarations and expressions show the behavior when type qualifiers modify an array or structure type:
const struct s { int mem; } cs = { 1 };
struct s ncs; /* ncs is modifiable */
typedef int A[2][3];
const A a = {{4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 9}}; /* array of array of const */
/* int's */
int *pi;
const int *pci;
ncs = cs; /* Valid */
cs = ncs; /* Invalid, cs is const-qualified */
pi = &ncs.mem; /* Valid */
pi = &cs.mem; /* Violates type constraints for = operator */
pci = &cs.mem; /* Valid */
pi = a[0]; /* Invalid; a[0] has type "const int *" */
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Use the const type qualifier to qualify an object whose value cannot be changed. Objects qualified by the const keyword cannot be modified. This means that an object declared as const cannot serve as the operand in an operation that changes its value; for example, the ++ and -- operators are not allowed on objects qualified with const. Using the const qualifier on an object protects it from the side effects caused by operations that alter storage.
The declaration of const-qualified objects can be slightly more complicated than that for nonqualified types. Here are some examples, with explanatory comments:
const int x = 44; /* const qualification of int type.
The value of x cannot be modified. */
const int *z; /* Pointer to a constant integer.
The value in the location pointed
to by z cannot be modified. */
int * const ptr; /* A constant pointer, a pointer
that will always point to the
same location */
const int *const p; /* A constant pointer to a constant
integer: neither the pointer or
the integer can be modified. */
const const int y; /* Illegal - redundant use of const */
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The following rules apply to the const type qualifier:
const struct employee {
char *name;
int birthdate; /* name, birthdate, job_code, and salary are */
int job_code; /* treated as though declared with const. */
float salary;
} a, b; /* All members of a and b are const-qualified*/
struct employee2 {
char *name;
const int birthdate; /* Only this member is qualified */
int job_code;
float salary;
} c, d;
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const int i = 0;
int j = 1;
const int *p = &i; /* Explicit const specifier required */
int *q = &j;
*p = 1; /* Error -- attempt to modify a const-
qualified object through a pointer */
*q = 1; /* OK */
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Any object whose type includes the volatile type qualifier indicates that the object should not be subject to compiler optimizations altering references to, or modifications of, the object.
volatile objects are especially prone to side effects. (See Section 2.5.) |
Optimizations that are defeated by using the volatile specifier can be categorized as follows:
An object without the volatile specifier does not compel the compiler to perform these optimizations; it indicates that the compiler has the freedom to apply the optimizations depending on program context and compiler optimization level.
The volatile qualifier forces the compiler to allocate memory for the volatile object, and to always access the object from memory. This qualifier is often used to declare that an object can be accessed in some way not under the compiler's control. Therefore, an object qualified by the volatile keyword can be modified or accessed in ways by other processes or hardware, and is especially vulnerable to side effects.
The following rules apply to the use of the volatile qualifier:
volatile volatile int x; |
volatile struct employee {
char *name;
int birthdate; /* name, birthdate, job_code, and salary are */
int job_code; /* treated as though declared with volatile. */
float salary;
} a,b; /* All members of a and b are volatile-qualified */
struct employee2 {
char *name;
volatile int birthdate; /* Only this member is qualified */
int job_code;
float salary;
} c, d;
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const int *intptr; volatile int x; intptr = &x; |
Use this data-type qualifier in pointer definitions to indicate to the compiler that the data pointed to is not properly aligned on a correct address. (To be properly aligned, the address of an object must be a multiple of the size of the type. For example, two-byte objects must be aligned on even addresses.)
When data is accessed through a pointer declared __unaligned, the compiler generates the additional code necessary to copy or store the data without causing alignment errors. It is best to avoid use of misaligned data altogether, but in some cases the usage may be justified by the need to access packed structures, or by other considerations.
Here is an example of a typical use of __unaligned:
typedef enum {int_kind, float_kind, double_kind} kind;
void foo(void *ptr, kind k) {
switch (k) {
case int_kind:
printf("%d", *(__unaligned int *)ptr);
break;
case float_kind:
printf("%f", *(__unaligned float *)ptr);
break;
case double_kind:
printf("%f", *(__unaligned double *)ptr);
break;
}
}
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Use the __restrict type qualifier on the declaration of a pointer type to indicate that the pointer is subject to compiler optimizations. Restricted pointers are expected to be an addition to the 9X revision of the ISO C Standard. Using restricted pointers judiciously can often improve the quality of code output by the compiler.
The following sections describe the rationale for restricted-pointer support.
For many compiler optimizations, ranging from simply holding a value in a register to the parallel execution of a loop, it is necessary to determine whether two distinct lvalues designate distinct objects. If the objects are not distinct, the lvalues are said to be aliases. If the compiler cannot determine whether or not two lvalues are aliases, it must assume that they are aliases and suppresses various optimizations.
Aliasing through pointers presents the greatest difficulty, because there is often not enough information available within a single function, or even within a single compilation unit, to determine whether two pointers can point to the same object. Even when enough information is available, this analysis can require substantial time and space. For example, it could require an analysis of a whole program to determine the possible values of a pointer that is a function parameter.
Consider how potential aliasing enters into implementations in C of two Standard C library functions memmove and memcpy:
The following example contrasts sample implementations of the memcpy and memmove functions:
/* Sample implementation of memmove */
void *memmove(void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n) {
char * t1 = s1;
const char * t2 = s2;
char * t3 = malloc(n);
size_t i;
for(i=0; i<n; i++) t3[i] = t2[i];
for(i=0; i<n; i++) t1[i] = t3[i];
free(t3);
return s1;
}
/* Sample implementation of memcpy */
void *memcpy(void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n);
char * t1 = s1;
const char * t2 = s2;
while(n -> 0) *t1++ = *t2++;
return s1;
}
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The restriction on memcpy is expressed only in its description in the Standard, and cannot be expressed directly in its implementation in C. While this allows the source-level optimization of eliminating the temporary used in memmove, it does not provide for compiler optimization of the resulting single loop.
In many architectures, it is faster to copy bytes in blocks, rather than one at a time:
The restriction in the description of memcpy in the Standard prohibits copying between overlapping objects. An object is a region of data storage, and except for bit-fields, objects are composed of contiguous sequences of one or more bytes, the number, order, and encoding of which are either explicitly specified or implementation-defined.
Consider the following example:
/* memcpy between rows of a matrix */
void f1(void) {
extern char a[2][N];
memcpy(a[1], a[0], N);
}
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In this example:
Now consider the following example:
/* memcpy between halves of an array */
void f2(void) {
extern char b[2*N];
memcpy(b+N, b, N);
}
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In this example:
The length of an object is determined by various methods:
If an aliasing restriction like the one for memcpy could be expressed in a function definition, then it would be available to a compiler to facilitate effective pointer alias analysis. The __restrict type qualifier accomplishes this by specifying in the declaration of a pointer that the pointer provides exclusive initial access to the object to which it points, as though the pointer were initialized with a call to malloc.
The following prototype for memcpy both expresses the desired restriction and is compatible with the current prototype:
void *memcpy(void * s1, const void * s2, size_t n); |
The following definition of restricted pointers supports expression of aliasing restrictions in as many paradigms as possible. This is helpful in converting existing programs to use restricted pointers, and allows more freedom of style in new programs.
This definition, therefore, allows restricted pointers to be:
A pointer is designated as a restricted pointer by specifying the __restrict type qualifier on its declaration.
The formal definition of a restricted pointer as proposed for inclusion in the revised ISO C Standard follows:
Let D be a declaration of an ordinary identifier that provides a means of designating an object P as a restrict-qualified pointer.
If D appears inside a block and does not have storage-class extern, let B denote the block. If D appears in the list of parameter declarations of a function definition, let B denote the associated block. Otherwise, let B denote the block of main (or the block of whatever function is called at program startup, in a freestanding environment).
In what follows, a pointer expression E is said to be based on object P if (at some sequence point in the execution of B prior to the evaluation of E) modifying P to point to a copy of the array object into which it formerly pointed would change the value of E. (In other words, E depends on the value of P itself rather than on the value of an object referenced indirectly through P. For example, if identifier p has type (int ** restrict), then the pointer expressions p and p+1 are based on the restricted pointer object designated by p, but the pointer expressions *p and p[1] are not.)
During each execution of B, let O be the array object that is determined dynamically by all references through pointer expressions based on P. All references to values of O shall be through pointer expressions based on P. Furthermore, if P is assigned the value of a pointer expression E that is based on another restricted pointer object P2, associated with block B2, then either the execution of B2 shall begin before the execution of B, or the execution of B2 shall end prior to the assignment. If this requirement is not met, then the behavior is undefined.
Here an execution of B means that portion of the execution of the program during which storage is guaranteed to be reserved for an instance of an object that is associated with B and has automatic storage duration. A reference to a value means either an access to or a modification of the value. During an execution of B, attention is confined to those references that are actually evaluated (this excludes references that appear in unevaluated expressions, and also excludes references that are "available," in the sense of employing visible identifiers, but do not actually appear in the text of B).
A translator is free to ignore any or all aliasing implications of uses of restrict.
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